Sennacherib Cylinder confirms Biblical record

"Now in the fourteenth year of King Hezekiah, Sennacherib king of Assyria came up against all the fortified cities of Judah and seized them.” (2 Kings 18:13)

The Bible provides an account of the siege of Jerusalem by Assyrian King Sennacherib during the reign of Judah’s King Hezekiah. In fact, it is mentioned in several locations in the Old Testament: Isaiah 36-37, II Kings 18-19, and II Chronicles 32. The siege occurred in the 14th year of Hezekiah’s reign, which placed it around 701 B.C. However, there was no extra-Biblical evidence of these events, so critics could dismiss the account as Hebrew mythology – until 1830.

British Colonel R. Taylor was excavating in the area of Nineveh in northern Iraq, now Nebi Yunus, in 1830 when he found a six-sided baked clay document, or prism, about 38.5 cm in height. The cuneiform writing records an account of Sennacherib’s third campaign, which involved the destruction of 46 cities in Judah and the deportation of 200,150 people. (The entire cylinder describes eight military campaigns, only one of which involves the Jews.)

As the Assyrian army laid siege to Jerusalem, the Bible records that Hezekiah sent a message to Sennacherib: “’Withdraw from me; whatever you impose on me I will bear.’ So the king of Assyria required of Hezekiah king of Judah three hundred talents of silver and thirty talents of gold. Hezekiah gave him all the silver which was found in the house of the Lord, and in the treasuries of the king’s house ... and gave it to the king of Assyria.” (2 Kings 18:14-15)

Column 3 of the prism records similar events: “As for Hezekiah the Judahite, who did not submit to my yoke … (Hezekiah) himself, like a caged bird I shut up in Jerusalem, his royal city. I threw up earthworks against him … As for Hezekiah, the terrifying splendor of my majesty overcame him ... In addition to the thirty talents of gold and eight hundred talents of silver … which he had brought after me to Nineveh, my royal city. To pay tribute and to accept servitude, he dispatched his messengers.”

Aside from the standard exaggerated aggrandizement of the king's exploits, some additional detail regarding the tribute exacted by Sennacherib can be found in the cylinder’s writing. The primary details in the descriptions of the events in both accounts are in agreement. Then, a funny thing happened on the way to Jerusalem. After the Assyrian army surrounded Judah's capital city and prepared for invasion, they simply turned around and went home without an explanation mentioned in the cylinder. The Bible, however, provides further details. God spoke through Isaiah the prophet, who told King Hezekiah: “’He (Sennacherib) will not come to this city or shoot an arrow there; and he will not come before it with a shield or throw up a siege ramp against it. By the way that he came, by the same he will return, and he shall not come to this city,’ declares the Lord.’” (2 Kings 19:32-33)

The book of Isaiah continues regarding the ultimate fate of Sennacherib which are, not surprisingly, not found on the clay cylinder: “Then the angel of the Lord went out and struck 185,000 in the camp of the Assyrians; and when men arose early in the morning, behold, all of these were dead. So Sennacherib king of Assyria departed and returned home and lived at Nineveh. It came about as he was worshiping in the house of Nisroch his god, that … his sons killed him with the sword ...” (Isaiah 37:36-38)

Though historians and scholars may dismiss the supernatural explanation provided in the Bible, a written account by the enemy and invading army certainly lends credence to the historicity of the battle. This is yet another example of later evidence confirming what the Bible had written thousands of years before.

(photo courtesy of the British Museum.)

References:
[1] The Taylor Prism, The British Museum online, accessed 8 Oct 2014.
[2] Randall Price, The Stones Cry Out, (Eugene, OR: Harvest House Publishers, 1997), 272-274.
[3] Sennacherib Prism, University of Texas, Translation Adapted from Luckenbill (1924:23-27).

Where's Jonah?

Church leaders in Iraq have called for a day of prayer on August 6th for Iraqi Christians who have been forced to leave Mosul, where the Islamic State (ISIS) issued an ultimatum: convert, leave, pay the jizya, or die. An estimated two million Christians lived in Iraq in the 1990s and church leaders estimated that figure plunged to around 200,000 by last year. The figure now may be zero, at least in Mosul.

Mosul is located on the Tigris River, opposite the former site of Nineveh, most populous city of the ancient Assyrian Empire. Nineveh was located at the intersection of important north-south and east-west trade routes. The Prophet Jonah preached to the Ninevites during the reign of Jeroboam II (793-753 B.C.). The penitence of the Ninevites was not enduring; about a century later Nahum prophesied their destruction and, in 612 B.C., the city was destroyed.

On June 10, ISIS entered Iraq’s second largest city and declared an Islamic Caliphate. On July 19, the Sunni Muslim insurgent group ordered Christians to leave. ISIS leader Caliph Ibrahim declared possessions of the unbelievers “property of the Islamic State” and confiscated cars, cell phones, cash, and even wedding rings. These were some of the last Christians to speak Aramaic, the native language of Jesus.

Around 30 churches were seized, with some turned to mosques or burned. Other religious sites were destroyed. The Vatican reported that the Orthodox Christian community successfully spirited away the relics of Thomas the Apostle who, it is said, introduced Christianity to Nineveh. The Kurdish Regional Government issued a statement welcoming the Christian exiles and calling on Kurds to assist those who have been displaced. The last Christians in Nineveh may have turned out the light.

References:
1. Eve Conant, “Q&A: Why Sunni Extremists Are Destroying Ancient Religious Sites in Mosul”, National Geographic online, 2 Aug 2014.
2. Jonathan Krohn, “Has Last Christian Left Iraqi City of Mosul After 2,000 Years?”, NBC News, 27 July 2014.
3. Col. (ret.) Dr. Jacques Neriah, “The Islamic State Ends the Centuries-Old Christian Presence in Mosul, Iraq”, Right Side News, 4 Aug 2014.
4. “Nineveh”, Encyclopaedia Brittanica, updated 4 Apr 2014, accessed 4 Aug 2014.

Cosmos and Giordano Bruno

Has the Christian Church been anti-science? That was the clear message promulgated during the premier episode of Cosmos, a remake by Neil Degrasse Tyson of the original series by Carl Sagan. The information presented in Cosmos is interesting, the visual effects are well-done, and it is a stylish vehicle to bring scientific discoveries of the universe to viewers in a manner that is accessible to every educational level. However, the inordinate amount of time spent in episode one with Giordano Bruno’s censorship, repression, and ultimate martyrdom by the church was surprising. How much did that contribute to our understanding of the universe? It appears the producers of the show view past religious repression of scientific freedom to be a serious issue that needs to be addressed today.

So, who was Giordano Bruno? First, he was not an astronomer, nor a scientist. Even this was admitted in the show. Furthermore, Bruno’s ideas of the universe were not based on scientific measurements. He was a Jesuit monk who promulgated the notion that the universe may be infinite – like God – and the sun did not revolve around the earth. The show Cosmos portrayed Bruno as being martyred for this belief, among others, by the Roman Catholic Church. Cosmos mentioned that Bruno was shunned or excommunicated by the Lutherans and Calvinists as well, thus indicating that basically all of organized Christianity in Europe at the time sought to repress the scientific discoveries of this man.

So, was Bruno killed because the church wanted to silence astronomers whose ideas were derived from scientific methods rather than religion? That’s the idea that was portrayed in the show, but it would be inaccurate to state that was the primary reason. Bruno preached several doctrines that were much more heretical: He denied the trinity, the divinity of Christ, the presence of Christ in the Eucharist, and he publicly disputed the virginity of Mary. That last one probably really ticked off the Roman Catholic Church. For the record, I don’t believe in the physical presence of Christ in the Eucharist. In fact, the Roman Catholic Church has had many problematic doctrines (e.g., purgatory, indulgences, papal infallibility, perpetual virginity of Mary, and penance, just to name a few). Some of these are discussed in more detail on this website. So, this article is by no means an apologetic for the Roman Catholic Church. The bottom line is that Bruno, who was part of the clergy, preached a number of doctrines that were contrary to the Church’s teaching and were much more heretical than heliocentrism.

The excessive amount of time spent by Tyson and Cosmos on religious persecution of Bruno could have been much better used to detail actual scientific discoveries of the time, such as those of Thomas Digges, a real scientist. Digges promoted the idea of Copernican heliocentrism in published works a quarter century before Bruno was executed. In 1573, Digges published a mathematical treatise, Alae seu scalae mathematicae, which detailed movement of a star that exploded the prior year, Tycho Brahe’s supernova. He translated part of a work by Copernicus and added his own ideas of an infinite universe. In 1676, Digges published A Perfit Description of the Caelestial Orbes in which he continued to promote the views of Copernicus, which was eight years before Bruno wrote of Copernicus’ heliocentric theory. Rather than suffer persecution from the church, Digges went on to become a member of parliament and had a successful military career.

Does the show have an agenda in addition to the advancement of scientific discovery? To answer that in the words of Cosmos Producer Seth McFarlane, creator of The Family Guy, in an interview with Esquire magazine: “We have to. Because of all the mysticism and stuff that’s gotten so popular … It’s like the civil-rights movement. There have to be people who are vocal about the advancement of knowledge over faith.” And, spokesperson Neil Degrasse Tyson told CNN: “ "I find it odd that we live in a time where people who are strongly religious want to make everyone else the same kind of religious way they are, and break down the door of the science classroom to put their religious philosophies in there." Fair enough. So, let’s present the scientific facts about the universe. Cosmos is a terrific show and it would be a shame to waste the potential to present the many fascinating scientific discoveries of the universe in order to promote a heavy-handed anti-Christian agenda.

References:
Robert Pogge, “The Folly of Giordano Bruno”, Ohio State University, , accessed 14 Mar 2014.
J J O'Connor and E F Robertson, biography of Thomas Digges, School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Saint Andrews, Scotland, accessed 30 Mar 2014.
Stacey Grenrock Woods, “Hungover with Seth McFarlane”, interview in Esquire Magazine, 18 Aug 2009.
Todd Leopold, “’Cosmos’ dazzles in debut”, CNN, 10 Mar 2014.

The God gene ten years later

It has been almost two years since the “God particle” was found and almost ten years since the “God gene” was allegedly found. Further research into the Higgs Boson seems to confirm the original reports from 2012. However, the God gene hypothesis has not fared so well. In nearly ten years, no studies have confirmed the existence of a genetic basis in humans for belief in the supernatural.

The so-called God gene discovery began in 1998, when Dean Hamer, geneticist at the National Cancer Institute, was conducting a study of cigarette smoking and cancer. As part of the study, a standardized 240-question personality test was given to 1,000 subjects entitled the Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI). Among others, one of the traits measured was self-transcendence, or the ability to lose oneself in an experience. (Why this was included in a study of cigarettes and cancer is not clear.) Hamer then branched off this study to spirituality and began to examine particular segments of the human genome. He narrowed the field to specific genes that play a role in the production of monoamines, such as serotonin, and norepinephrine and dopamine. These regulate functions such as mood and can be manipulated by antidepressant psychotropic medication.

Hamer noticed that volunteers who scored high on the self-transcendence test had a variation in a gene known as vmat2 – vesicular monoamine transporter. Those with the nucleic acid cytosine in a particular location on the gene ranked high on the personality test and those with adenine in this location ranked low. [1] Even Hamer pointed out that the human genome and personality are complex and a single change in one position of a gene would not likely be the sole determining factor, stating “"The specific gene I have identified is by no means the entire story behind spirituality”. Nonetheless, in 2004, Hamer published a book titled The God Gene: How Faith is Hardwired into Our Genes.

Scientific American writer Carl Zimmer noted that Hamer’s 2004 book was premature since the genetic link between VMAT2 and self-transcendence had not been replicated by other studies and the relevance to humans had not been demonstrated. Rather than “The God Gene”, Zimmer proposed a more appropriate title for the book: “A Gene That Accounts for Less Than One Percent of the Variance Found in Scores on Psychological Questionnaires Designed to Measure a Factor Called Self-Transcendence, Which Can Signify Everything from Belonging to the Green Party to Believing in ESP, According to One Unpublished, Unreplicated Study.” [3]

It should be noted this is not the first time Dean Hamer has made the news. In 1993, he created a media splash when it was reported that he found a genetic basis for male homosexuality. He found a marker in the Xq28 region of the X chromosome on an allegedly statistically significant percentage of those subjects tested. [2] However, in more than 20 years, no other researchers have been able to replicate the study.

Those who are genetically predisposed – or as Lady Gaga would sing “born this way” – will tend to believe in some higher power or spirit world and those who lack the genetic marker will probably not believe. So, what would be the logical conclusion of this line of reason? First, this means a real god is less likely since belief is simply a genetic tendency, probably left over from our evolutionary survivalist past. Second, non-spiritual persons are less likely to be culpable for any moral failures since they are simply acting as their godless conscience leads. If a marker could be found for belief in God, would that be a form of genetic hyper-Calvinism, in which some people are predetermined to believe and others to not believe?

Are some people more predisposed toward some type of spirituality due to genetics, environment, or both? Probably to some degree. In the same manner, some people may be more prone to alcoholism, altruism, or violence. A predisposition has no bearing on truth or morality. Altruism is good and violence is generally not. Similarly, God exists regardless of a variation on a gene in my body. Human free will is not negated by genetics. As stated by Nobel Laureate Francis Collins, head of the Human Genome Project: “Heredity does have an influence not only over medical risks but also over certain behaviors and personality traits. But look at identical twins, who have exactly the same DNA but often don't behave alike or think alike. They show the importance of learning and experience—and free will.” [4] Collins plainly stated, “There is no God gene”.

Dean Hamer’s study would be intriguing, if statistically significant and repeatable. However, his findings were not subjected to peer review, have not been replicated, and the conclusion appears to be invalid.

[1] Jeffrey Kluger, “Is God in our Genes?” from TIME Magazine, October 25, 2004.
[2] Dean Hamer, Stella Hu, Victoria Magnuson, Nan Hu, Angela Pattatucci, “A linkage between DNA markers on the X chromosome and male sexual orientation”, Science, Volume 261, No. 5119, July 16, 1993, 321-327.
[3] Carl Zimmer, “Faith-Boosting Genes”, Scientific American, October 2004.
[4] John Horgan interview, “Francis Collins: The Scientist as Believer”, National Geographic, February 2007.

New stem cells easy and cheap

The production – and destruction - of human embryos to produce stem cells, with the hopes of treating degenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s, may be moving toward irrelevancy. In a study published in the journal Nature, adult cells were induced to pluripotency with a simple proceduce to act as stem cells which were capable of transforming into varied types of cells in the body. Researchers at the RIKEN research institute in Japan, with lead study author Haruko Obokata, employed a technique referred to as stimulus-triggered acquisition of pluripotency (STAP).

Blood cells of newborn mice were soaked in a mildly acidic solution for 30 minutes, then returned to a standard cell culture medium. Those that survived this near-fatal shock were found to have been induced to pluripotency, the ability to become transformed into any type of cell in the body. Prior to this study, either embryonic cells were needed to obtain stem cells or more complicated methods involving genetic manipulation were required to induce pluripotency. The study authors noted that the technique required neither nuclear transfer nor the introduction of transcription factors. Rudolf Jaenisch, developmental biologist at the Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research in Cambridge, Massachusetts, remarked that “It’s quite surprising” that the technique “doesn’t involve any genetic manipulation”.

A gene only present in stem cells, known as Oct-4, was tagged with a fluorescent marker after being removed from mice spleens by Obokata and her team. They found that some white blood cells exposed to mild acid stress (pH of 5.7) survived and, after two days, some of the cells began to glow, indicating they had been transformed to stem cells. These were then injected into mouse embryos and, over time, became incorporated into all three germ layers of the embryo, indicating they were inheritable. After about a week, 20% of the cells survived and, of those, 30% reverted to a pluripotent state.

Though the researchers used white blood cells from mice in the majority of the experiments, the technique was also demonstrated to be effective when used with brain, skin, muscle, and other cells. Obokata noted that the efficiency of the cells decreased with the age of the mouse, raising the need for further development of the method for use with older patients. Nonetheless, Ernst Wolvetang, stem cell scientist at the University of Queensland in St Lucia, Australia, remarked that the method is so simple that it “will make reprogramming more accessible” for widespread laboratory use.

The STAP method draws on prior research with somatic, or differentiated, plant cells which have been known to revert to an immature state when placed under certain types of environmental stress. Conditions such as insufficient water or excessive heat can cause some plant cells to become capable of forming new plants. Obokata had previously conducted studies with plants and, in 2008, began subjecting mice cells to similar stressors to determine if animal cells may react similarly.

Commenting on the study, Chris Mason, professor of regenerative medicine at University College London, stated: “If it works in man, this could be the game changer that ultimately makes a wide range of cell therapies available using the patient’s own cells as starting material – the age of personalized medicine would have finally arrived”. Furthermore, if the new STAP method works in humans, it should also reduce or eliminate the genetic mutations that can occur in induced pluripotent cells derived from embryos.

References:
Haruko Obokata, “Stimulus-triggered fate conversion of somatic cells into pluripotency”, Nature, 505, 641-647, (30 Jan 2014).
Monte Morin, “New method makes stem cells in about 30 minutes, scientists report”, Los Angeles Times, 29 Jan 2014.
Dennis Normile, “Acid Treatment Could Provide Breakthrough Stem Cell Technique”, Sciencemag.org, 29 Jan 2014.
Lanay Tierney, “Acid bath converts blood cells to stem cells”, BioNews, 3 Feb 2014.

Extra-Biblical evidence for the Tower of Babel

One of the oldest stories in the Bible concerns the Tower of Babel. Some people today question whether it is simply a myth, with no other evidence outside of the Bible. But, like numerous other events recorded in the Bible, there are historical and archaeological records – from non-Jewish sources – which corroborate the Biblical record.

It is written in Genesis 11:1, 7-8: “Now the whole earth used the same language and the same words … let Us go down and there confuse their language, so that they will not understand one another’s speech. So the Lord scattered them abroad from there over the face of the whole earth; and they stopped building the city. Therefore its name was called Babel, because there the Lord confused the language of the whole earth; and from there the LORD scattered them abroad over the face of the whole earth.” (Genesis 11:1, 7-9) The word babel in ancient Hebrew means “confusion”.

Location of Babel is described in Genesis 10 as in the land of Shinar. Other Biblical passages also reference Shinar, such as Joshua 7:21, Isaiah 11:11, Daniel 1:2, and Zechariah 5:11. The ancient Sumerian name for the Tower of Babel – as is known today – is Etemenanki, which means “House of the foundation of heaven on earth.” [1]

Tower of Babel stele
A black stone dated to 604-562 B.C., 45x27x11 cm, is inscribed in cuneiform script and depicts the Tower of Babel, showing it to have been built in seven stages. Also depicted on the stone is a figure of King Nebuchadnezzar II, with what is believed to be a scroll with plans for rebuilding of the tower. The stone does not provide information to date the original tower construction prior to Nebuchadnezzar’s reconstruction. The tower is named Etemenanki, “The house, the foundation of heaven and earth, ziggurat in Babylon” and the actual artifact is currently housed in the Schoyen Collection. The middle part of the inscription has been erased, though the conquering ruler’s inscription was never inserted. A ziggurat is essentially a stepped rectangular pyramidal tower, often built in stages and with an outside staircase. Schoyen Collection commentators note that the ziggurat was originally built in Babylon around the time of Hammurabi, about 1792-1750 B.C. Restoration began under Nabopolassar and was completed by Nebuchadnezzar II. [2]

Esagila Tablet
A Seleucid stone tablet from Uruk, written in cuneiform, dated to 229 B.C., is currently on display in the Louvre (AO 6555). It is known as the “Esagila” tablet because it records courtyards built in Esagila, a temple of the god Marduk in Babylon. The text was copied from an earlier document which describes reconstruction of the Marduk temple during the reigns of Nabopolassar (625-605 B.C.) and Nebuchadnezzar II (605-562 B.C.). Large stairs were discovered at the south side of the building, where a triple gate connected the Etemenanki with the Esagila. The more interesting portion of the tablet contains writing mentions the ziggurat Etemananki, “House of the Foundation of Heaven and Earth”. The tablet describes Etemananki as a multi-tiered tower and provides precise measurements of seven stories, design of the base, and stairways. This tablet is also valuable because it illustrates a complex mathematical system used by the Babylonians, which was “sacred” and only intended to be used by the “wise men”. [3]

Greek historical records
At least two Greek historians mention this tower. One was Herodotus (ca 484-425 B.C.) in his work Histories. He describes a massive tower in Babylon consisting of eight stages and is surrounded by a ramp. Herodotus stated the length of the base tower is a furlong (about 200 meters or 600 feet). [4] A second Greek source, Diodorus Siculus, also mentions the tower (Book II, 7-10).

Dating construction of the tower
Construction of the Tower of Babel, based on historical and archaeological records, has generally been dated to roughly 3500-2400 B.C. Sargon I is known to have ruled around 2350 B.C. in the capital city of Akkad, in the Mesopotamian valley. History indicates that Sargon I destroyed the temple in Babylon at that time and it was later rebuilt by Sarkalisarri around 2250 B.C. Halley’s Bible Handbook indicates the events occurred the 4th generation after Noah’s flood, around the time of Peleg (Genesis 10:25), about 101 years after the flood and 326 years before the calling of Abraham (Genesis 10:26). [5] Many scholars place the birth of
Abraham roughly prior to 2000 B.C., so this fits with dating of the tower as prior to about 2350 B.C. How much prior is difficult to determine since Biblical genealogies are known to contain gaps, making the time periods longer – maybe much longer - than they might initially appear.

John H. Walton, Professor of Old Testament at Wheaton College, describes a historical setting for the culture at that time which was conducive to building of such a structure. For example, baked brick technology was used around 3100 B.C. And, development of the ziggurat was used in the early Dynastic Period, ca. 2500 B.C., with early prototypes dating back to the late Uruk period, ca. 3500 B.C. [6] So, the Biblical narrative describing building of this tower is well corroborated by extra-Biblical lines of evidence.

The whole earth?
One issue that some raise involves dating of people groups in other parts of the world prior to the usual dating for the Tower of Babel. For instance, carbon 14 dating and artifacts found in the Americas have been dated much earlier than 3500-2400 B.C., possibly more than 14,000 years ago. There are three possible explanations for this. Either the tower was actually constructed earlier than the records seem to indicate, the migrations out of Mesopotamia were later than thought, or a combination of the two. A third possible explanation involves Biblical use of the phrase “the whole earth”. This phrase was used by Moses, author of Genesis, in chapter 11, verses 1, 4, 8, and 9, and is derived from the ancient Hebrew words koi ‘erets. These words are also used by Moses in Genesis 41:57 to describe from where people came to purchase grain. This was during the time Joseph was in Egypt. Hugh Ross makes the point, in discussing the famine of Joseph’s time, that it is important to use the writer’s frame of reference:
“We understand these words to signify that the famine devastated all the lands of the ancient Near East in and around Egypt. We do not interpret them globally, as implying that Australian Aborigines and American Indians came to Egypt to buy grain from Joseph.” [7]

Likewise, is it possible God only needed to confuse the languages of those people living in the Mesopotamian valley region to accomplish His purpose? Perhaps the events recorded in Genesis 11 concern only the people living in the Mesopotamian region during that time and not people groups living in very disparate regions of the globe. In the third millennium B.C., there was no method of communication between people of the Middle East and people of the Americas other than a very long camel ride. The “whole earth” or “whole land” during the time of Moses and Abraham may have encompassed what the people knew of, not very distant lands of which they had no knowledge and no communication.

[1] Jona Lendering, “Etemenanki (Tower of Babel)”, Livius: Articles on Ancient History, accessed 1 Jan 2014.
[2] The Schoyen Collection, “History: Babylonian”, MS 2063, website accessed 1 Jan 2014.
[3] Iselin Claire, “The ‘Esagila’ Tablet”, Louvre Museum, website accessed 1 Jan 2014.
[4] Herodotus, The History of Herodotus, (London: J. M. Dent & Sons Ltd., 1936), p. 181
[5] Henry H. Halley, Halley’s Bible Handbook, (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1965), p. 83.
[6] John H. Walton, “Is there archaeological evidence for the tower of Babel?”, Associates for Biblical Research, written 10 May 2008., accessed 1 Jan 2014.
[7] Hugh Ross, The Genesis Question, (Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress, 1998), 142-143.

The science of thankfulness

“It is good to give thanks to the Lord” (Psalm 92:1)

Journal of Clinical Psychology
A study published August 2013 in the Journal of Clinical Psychology confirms what many previous research studies have concluded: Gratitude is good. Dr. Robert Emmons, UC Davis, and Robin Stern have found that clinical trials demonstrate the practice of gratitude can have dramatic and long lasting positive effects in a person’s life, including improved immune function, lower blood pressure, as well as reduced risk for depression, anxiety, and substance abuse disorders. Gratitude is defined as a “cognitive-affective state that is typically associated with the perception that one has received a personal benefit that was not intentionally sought after, deserved, or earned but rather because of the good intentions of another”. [1]

Robert Emmons and Robin Stern introduce the intriguing notion of incorporating gratitude as a psychotherapeutic intervention. They note that many rigorous, controlled experimental trials have examined the benefits of gratitude, which is linked more strongly to mental health and life satisfaction than any personality trait. These include such positive traits as hope, optimism, and compassion. Employing gratitude as a discipline offers protection against destructive impulses of envy, resentment, greed, and bitterness. People who are thankful can more effectively cope with stress, recover more quickly from illness, and enjoy better physical health.

Thankfulness and coping ability
One of the most salient features of people who are grateful is effective coping, as revealed by a wide array of research studies, according to Psychology Professor Philip C. Watkins, Eastern Washington University. Thankful people positively reappraise negative events, leading to increased ability to cope. And, grateful processing of bad events helps to bring closure, decreasing the intrusiveness and negative affect of troubling memories. [2] In the Bible, when Saul killed 85 priests and was seeking David’s life (1 Samuel 22), David reappraised the negative events and said to God: “I will give you thanks forever” (Psalm 52:9).

Gratitude and thankfulness research project
In research conducted over eight years by Robert Emmons, it was discovered that those persons who kept a gratitude journal on a weekly basis or engaged in daily gratitude exercises reported the following:
• fewer physical complaints
• more likely to have made progress toward important personal goals, such as academic achievement, compared to subjects in other experimental conditions
• higher levels of alertness, enthusiasm, determination and energy
• more likely to help another person with a problem [3]

The Apostle Paul had more reasons than most of us to not be thankful: beaten with rods, stoned, left for dead, shipwrecked, stranded in the ocean, imprisoned, naked, cold, hungry, and no smart phone (2 Cor. 11:25). Nonetheless, Paul mentioned thankfulness or thanks at least 48 times in his New Testament writings. Often in spite of circumstances, he willfully chose to thank God:
“in everything give thanks” (1 Cor. 5:18)
“Thanks be to God for His indescribable gift” (2 Cor. 9:15)
“thanks be to God who gives us the victory through our Lord Jesus Christ” (1 Cor. 15:57)

[1] Robert A. Emmons and Robert Stern, “Gratitude as a Psychotherapeutic Intervention”, Journal of Clinical Psychology, Volume 69, Issue 8, pages 846–855, August 2013
[2] Philip C. Watkins, Gratitude and the Good Life, (Springer, 2013) pp. 159-174
[3] Robert C. Emmons, Thanks! How The New Science of Gratitude Can Make You Happier, (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2007).