Credentials
Michael J. Behe, Professor of
Biological Science at Lehigh University, received his PhD in Biochemistry from
the University of Pennsylvania, did post-doctoral work on DNA structure at the
National Institutes of Health, and has authored more than 40 technical papers.
In 1996, Behe authored his first book, Darwin’s
Black Box: The Biochemical Challenge to Evolution, quickly becoming a
founding father of the intelligent design movement and a lightning rod for
vociferous criticism. His second book, The
Edge of Evolution, was published in 2007 (a full-time job and nine children
make it a challenge to write books).
The Upper Limit of
Darwinism
As the title
indicates, the main premise of the book is to determine the “edge” or upper
limit of evolution by undirected, naturalistic processes, utilizing random
mutations. Writing in a style that is easy for laymen to follow, yet engaging
enough for those with some scientific background, Dr. Behe takes the reader to
the molecular level where random mutations occur. By conceptualizing proteins
as the “nanobots” of living organisms, the book details some of the complexity
of these systems. Noting that nearly every major process in a cell is carried
out by assemblies of ten or more protein molecules is only the beginning of the
complexity: These nanobots must self-assemble. Then, for proteins to work jointly
in the cell, binding sites must fit together similarly to a lock and key. The
book points out that, to make Darwinian evolution work at this level, it would
be necessary for five or six amino acids to change in a coherent manner to
reach the higher order advancement of a new binding site. This may not sound
like much, but the statistical likelihood as shown by the research of the
development of only two new protein binding sites – to acquire some new, useful
property in the cell – is the upper limit of Darwinism. Five or six beneficial
changes are well beyond the limit. Behe shows that experimental research
studies and hard statistical data are definitely not on the side of evolution
by random mutation.
Evolution in
microorganisms?
Behe examines in some
detail effects of random mutations of three organisms that are ideal for this
type of analysis: Plasmodium falciparum
(malaria), Escherichia coli, and HIV. Each has been studied extensively for
decades and, during that time, genetic studies contain data for many thousands
of generations, and multiple trillions of organisms. Additionally, these three
organisms are ideal for study since the entire genome of each has been
sequenced. For more than a century, E. coli has been studied in the lab and in
one particular experiment; over thirty thousand generations - roughly the
equivalent of a million years of human history – have been systematically
studied. Certainly if random mutation and natural selection were the mechanisms
of Darwinian evolution, we should see these little buggers evolving into some
higher organism, right? If malarial cells have not evolved into a chimpanzee by
now, then perhaps a sea snail? Not even close. In all these generations, there
have been “No new protein-protein interactions, no new molecular machines”[1]
and nothing even hinting at a new, higher level organism.
Perspective
To put these studies
of bacteria and viruses into perspective, The
Edge of Evolution gives an estimate of the total number of malarial cells
worldwide in only one year as 10²ยบ cells. Compared with a rough estimate of the
total number of “Primates in the line leading to modern humans in the past ten
million years”[2] of
10¹². So, if Darwinism is the mechanism for primate evolution, then why has
there been no sign of evolution in malarial cells, which outnumber (in one year
alone) the total number of primates who have lived in millions of years by a
factor of one hundred million? If orangutans, gorillas, and chimps evolved from
lower primates, and humans evolved from there, we certainly should see
significant evolution through random mutation from malarial cells. And, not
only malaria, but also E. coli and HIV, which mutates at a dizzying rate. But,
that’s not the case. Increased complexity is simply not happening and Behe has
the hard scientific data to prove it.
Trench warfare or
arms race?
One of the alleged
examples of Darwinian evolution shown to students in the classroom includes
sickle hemoglobin (usually a deleterious mutation) conferring malarial
resistance. Other examples include mutations in protein binding sites that lead
to antibiotic resistance. However, Behe explains that these examples are not
progressive. They are more like acts of desperation, like burning one’s own bridges
to stop the enemies’ advance during a time of war. This picture is contrasted
with a very different type of warfare, the USA-Soviet arms race of the 1980s,
in which deliberate, intelligent advances in technology were made. As the book
points out, beneficial mutations at two sites in a protein is extremely rare
and is near the upper limit of Darwinism. Furthermore, this example of malarial
mutation, while beneficial, does not evolve any new, advanced, or complex
machinery. This and other similar examples are demonstrations of what Behe
terms “trench warfare”, not increases in complexity.
Conclusion
Michael Behe employs a
number of analogies that assist the reader in understanding the import of the
molecular inner workings. Some of the alleged examples of evolution in progress
are identified as debris in the gutter at one’s house, trench warfare, and a
drunk climbing a small hill but failing to ascend the mountain. These analogies
can be useful in applying the microscopic world to the macroscopic. “If there
is not a smooth, gradually rising, easily found evolutionary pathway leading to
a biological system within a reasonable time, Darwinian processes won’t work”.[3]
Behe does admit common descent and he notes that Darwinian evolution does
account for variation within species. The
Edge of Evolution makes a very convincing case that the upper limit of
natural selection via random mutation does not extend much higher than that.
Well beyond the edge exists a high degree of fine tuning necessary for life,
including: multi-protein complexes,
molecular machines, biochemical properties of DNA, phyla, classes, kingdoms, cells,
origin of life, and so on. The conclusion is that “The major architectural
features of life – molecular machinery, cells, genetic circuitry, and probably
more – are purposely designed.”[4]
But, atheistic Darwinists need not worry: Behe draws no heavy-handed theistic
conclusions from this and he is not a young earth creationist. He simply lays
out evidence for the limits of Darwinism.
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